Indian Mathematics :: India Math Education

Presentation: Indian, specifically, Hindu, science has not been given the credit or acknowledgment that it merits. A considerable lot of the fundamental ideas utilized in all science were first found by the Hindu Indians. This paper will talk about a considerable lot of these ideas and how they were utilized in the fifth through the eighth hundreds of years. Aside from direct declaration on the point, the writing of the Hindus outfits undeniable proof to demonstrate that the old Hindus had shocking intensity of memory and centralization of thought. The study of arithmetic, the most unique everything being equal, must have an overpowering interest for the psyches of the Hindus. Arithmetic is the science to which Indians have contributed the most. Our decimal framework, place documentation, numbers one through nine, and the pervasive 0, are altogether significant Indian commitments to world science. Without them, our cutting edge universe of PC sciences, satellites, microchips, and man-made consciou sness would all have been unimaginable. Most of my composing will concentrate on a particular zone of math called the shulba sutras, which comprises of most of the revelations made in geometry. This geometry interests me in view of their motivation and implying that is associated with all that they do. Math albeit apparently extremely solid, good and bad, can be clarified from a profound perspective also. The implications behind all the numerical estimations are the genuine huge part concurring the Vedic writing. The Sulba Sutras The Sulba Sutras, is a significant piece of the Vedic writing, which comprises of a point by point examination clarifying the significance and interrelation between different parts of Vedic writings. Mr. Maharihsi Mahesh Yogi, has totally reestablished the a huge number of years-old dissipated Vedic Literature for the all out criticalness of its hypothesis and practice, and has composed it as a total study of awareness. The Vedic writing is arranged into forty sections, including the four Vedas in addition to six areas each with six sections. The four Vedas, the Brahamanas, the Vendangas, the Upa-Vedas, and the Pratishakhya each express a particular nature of consciousness,(1) which implies that we have to look past the surface to locate the more profound implications. There are four fundamental Sulba Sutras, the Baudhayana, the Apastamba, the Manava, and the Katyayna. One of the implications of the Vedic Sulba Sutras is string, line or rope,(1) which shows that the most punctual geometrical and numerical examinations among the Indians rose from the necessities of their strict ceremonies. This could be a reference to the way that estimations for the geometrical developments are performed by drawing bends with various radii and focuses utilizing a string or sulba.

Free Essays on Illiad

Homer’s epic, the Iliad, cam be delineated as a loathsome, ridiculous war or a festival of gallantry achieved by the extraordinary officers of the Achaeans and Trojans. Numerous individuals kick the bucket futile due to egotistical and passionate choices made by men. The war likewise draws out the chivalrous characteristics of the men battling against one another. The Iliad is one of the best Greek works of all occasions indicating both the ruthlessness and bravery of war. The Iliad shows the ruthlessness of war by the numerous harshly passings all through the epic. Homer portrays numerous passings in savage, anatomic detail. The plague that Agamemnon brought upon the Achaeans is one case of the severity of war. The plague was made due to a childish Achilles. Different models would be by the manner in which Patroclus and Hector is murdered. Apollo slaughters Patroclus on account of his respect for Achilles. Hector is ruthlessly murdered by Achilles due to the passing of his dear companion Patroclus. Hectors body was dealt with so gravely after his demise that it was an affront to him. Like all wars, a large portion of the passings fill in as a reason for indicating the peruser that no demise is immaterial or simple. The characters of the Iliad have various methods of demonstrating valor. In the hour of the Trojan War, there was an unwritten code of chivalrous direct that the most intrepid warriors followed. Hector is a saint in his own specific manner. Despite the fact that he kicked the bucket in an exceptionally awful manner, the Trojans all commended him as an incredible legend of their time. The Greeks additionally treat Patroclus as a legend after his demise. He was given an extraordinary festival in his respect. Achilles was potentially the most esteemed saint of Greek time. At the point when Priam asks Achilles for Hectors body, they share snapshot of acknowledgment of what has been lost to the long war. Shockingly, Achilles consents to return Hectors body so he can have a legitimate internment. All through the sonnet, Achilles, Hector, and Patroculus all turned out to be increasingly experienced, which is the reason we can glance back at them just like the grea... Free Essays on Illiad Free Essays on Illiad Homer’s epic, the Iliad, cam be delineated as a loathsome, grisly war or a festival of bravery realized by the extraordinary officers of the Achaeans and Trojans. Numerous individuals kick the bucket futile due to presumptuous and passionate choices made by men. The war additionally draws out the courageous characteristics of the men battling against one another. The Iliad is one of the best Greek works of all occasions indicating both the severity and valor of war. The Iliad shows the ruthlessness of war by the numerous horribly passings all through the epic. Homer portrays numerous passings in vicious, anatomic detail. The plague that Agamemnon brought upon the Achaeans is one case of the mercilessness of war. The plague was made due to a childish Achilles. Different models would be by the manner in which Patroclus and Hector is executed. Apollo executes Patroclus on account of his respect for Achilles. Hector is fiercely murdered by Achilles as a result of the passing of his dear companion Patroclus. Hectors body was dealt with so gravely after his demise that it was an affront to him. Like all wars, the majority of the passings fill in as a reason for indicating the peruser that no demise is inconsequential or simple. The characters of the Iliad have various methods of indicating courage. In the hour of the Trojan War, there was an unwritten code of chivalrous lead that the most daring warriors followed. Hector is a saint in his own particular manner. In spite of the fact that he passed on in a frightful manner, the Trojans all praised him as an incredible legend of their time. The Greeks likewise treat Patroclus as a legend after his demise. He was given an incredible festival in his respect. Achilles was potentially the most esteemed legend of Greek time. At the point when Priam asks Achilles for Hectors body, they share snapshot of acknowledgment of what has been lost to the long war. Shockingly, Achilles consents to return Hectors body so he can have a legitimate entombment. All through the sonnet, Achilles, Hector, and Patroculus all turned out to be increasingly full grown, which is the reason we can glance back at them just like the grea...

The Effects of Globalization on the Future of Adult Learning Article

The Effects of Globalization on the Future of Adult Learning - Article Example As the world keeps on contracting into a littler worldwide town and become progressively interconnected, instruction will keep on assuming its pivotal job in the change to the contemporary post present day worldwide society. In spite of the fact that the act of Adult training developed in the United States, it has definitely spread to different pieces of the world. For instance globalization has empowered the US model of grown-up training just as the instructive ways of thinking to spread to different pieces of the world and subsequently numerous organizations offering grown-up instruction in various areas have amended their techniques and approaches in regards to the act of grown-up learning. So also the grown-up instruction educational programs of most colleges are presently being overhauled to fulfill the needs and difficulties of a globalized world as opposed to their individual nations. As indicated by Merriam and Brockett (1997),â€Å"adult adapting for the most part alludes t o instructive practices which are intended to realize learning and self-improvement to those having a place with grown-up social gathering in the society†( p.8).The practice of grown-up training is at present confronting various difficulties in the worldwide society and globalization has not just expanded weight on the contemporary establishments of higher figuring out how to fit in with the worldwide requests yet has likewise expanded work chances to the worldwide markets. As to the way that most nations of the world are quickly receiving free market economies, instruction is right now observed as one of the basic components of making business progress and national seriousness especially in the worldwide work markets (Boeren, 2011, p.376). Another significant effect of globalization on the act of grown-up instruction is ascribed to the way that globalization has brought about different social treacheries and thus the future act of grown-up training must consider the routes th rough which these social shameful acts can be tended to. Numerous experts likewise agree that a portion of the basic courses through which globalization is influencing the current just as the future act of grown-up training incorporates expanding pressure for changing curricular of grown-up training, through work and financial markets, disposal of different national dialects from grown-up instructive projects in different nations just as through the expanding us of English language as the essential language of guidance. This paper fundamentally examine the potential impacts of globalization on both the present and eventual fate of grown-up training with specific spotlight on how the act of grown-up instruction in America has affected on learning over the globe. How social and worldwide issues are influencing the act of grown-up training There are a few social factors just as worldwide issues that significantly affect the current just as the future act of grown-up instruction. For in stance a portion of these social and worldwide issues have brought about the need to change the general reason for the act of grown-up instruction itself. Though beforehand grown-up instruction was fundamentally intended to meet social targets, globalization has moved this reason and grown-up training as of now equipped towards satisfying the needs of a serious worldwide economy and maintainable advancement ( Gacel-Avila, 2005, p.122). Therefore this has constrained instructors to upgrade their instructive curricular to

George Saunders Analysis

George Saunders Analysis Unexpressed Internal Conflicts Clashes are basic for the story as well as substance of the story. Perusers lean toward composing styles in which they can include themselves through the whole story and feel the ‘anxiety of the hero or different characters to accomplish the objectives set by them. George Saunders mirrors this composing style in a portion of his short stories, particularly The Wavemaker Falters and The 400-pound CEO. His splendid mocking writing in these accounts depicts the storytellers concealed feelings and sentiments which lead to sick destiny. He is clever in the manner he portrays the points of view of his characters with validness. This point by point and gruff portrayal of the wild strings of thought of the characters causes us comprehend the explanation for their entire lives entanglements. We comprehend that self articulation goes far in keeping ones mental soundness in the upset and dull world made by Saunders. The heroes of Saunders stories hold their authentic feelings within themselves which in the long run lead to their destruction. In The Wavemaker Falters, the storyteller is compelled to stifle his displeasure he feels towards Leon as he is hard squeezed under the blame of slaughtering a little fellow by net specialized lack of regard. He is overwhelmed by detachment and acquiescence, two components by which he drives his everyday life. This prompts his defeat as he loses his satisfaction, his better half and all that had once been noteworthy to him. In this short story, Leon continually helps him to remember his blame by asking him not to feel remorseful which as opposed to being of any assistance basically served to stoke the fire (Saunders 38). Moreover, his life gets nightmarish as he gets Clive in his fantasies, in a condition of absolute frustration. â€Å"One night he shows up swearing in Latin while some other time with a wild tale about an antiquated African culture that pre -owned radio waves to transfer inborn myths†(Saunders 39). Storyteller doesn't resolve this issue by counseling an authority, yet keeps on getting discouraged by the way that he finished a guiltless life. Then again, Jeffery in The 400 pound CEO stifles his resentment and anger brought about by everyday treatment gave by his partners. He is well-intentioned and hopeful about existence and thinks he merits another opportunity at satisfaction. He is depicted as a confident person with a high level of expectation all through the story. He accepts that on the off chance that he is well-intentioned and amiable; it may change people groups practices and view of him. In the story, he executes Tim during the time spent attempting to spare an honest young ladies life. He submits the homicide ‘sick with rage realizing that Tim was a barbarous beast. He constantly uncovered Tim as a blameworthy individual. In spite of the fact that Jeffery carries out the wrongdoing, his expectation is consistently to ensure others, which he experiences issues communicating because of dread of being derided (Saunders 59). This absence of self articulation was the reason for the contained outrage. Saunders composing style communicates confidence and submission to the inevitable in both the short stories to make his parody astute. In the Wavemaker Falters, Saunders makes reference to storytellers critical character in his dealings with Simone. The storyteller shows extraordinary greed with Simones joy. He goes to Leons office and trusts that Simon will come out ‘flushed and glad. â€Å"He needs to leaps out and go up against her yet he doesnt† (Saunders 42). In any event, when he accumulates mental fortitude to go up against his better half in regards to her issue with Leon; he is put somewhere around Simone who straightforwardly acknowledged her expressions of love for Leon. He acknowledges the way that Simons relationship with Leon will proceed with regardless of what he does (Saunders 43). Consequently he turns into even more down and out and needs excitement to recover what is genuinely his. Then again, Jeffery in The 400 pound CEO is idealistic and confident till the end. In any case, then again, he offers a solid agnostic expression in view of the solid sentiments of being cheated by God himself â€Å"I have a feeling that God is unjustifiable and specially rebuffs his powerless, his stupid, his fat, and his languid. I accept he enjoys more his ideal animals, and roots for them like a brainless father as they run roughshod over the remainder of us†(Saunders 63). He is obviously disappointed with his physical appearance. He trusts that there is a God who controls the SubGod. He wishes his resurrection with increasingly â€Å"beautiful child, bound for an alternate life in which I am awesome, smooth as a deer, a winner† (Saunders 64). He doesn't lose trust. Notwithstanding that, he demonstrates his readiness to make sure about one more opportunity at life by asking Freeda out. She bamboozles him into accepting that she needed to date him, when the reality of the situation was that she needed the cash Tim offered for it. In addition, Jeffery, a 400 pound CEO, acknowledges duty regarding Tims murder. He wished everything would end up well in the event that he talks reality before the appointed authority. Truth be told, â€Å"the judge valued his genuineness for sparing a young ladies life† (Saunders 63). As an end, Saunders legitimate parody in these accounts connects the crowd to peruse his writing. The storyteller from The Wavemaker Falter displays the characteristics of negativity and exhibits that he accepts that he is weak to change his fate. Then again; Jeffery from The 400 pound CEO has an idealistic view in of life and never loses trust till the end. Likewise, the distortion was an incredible assistance as it encouraged the exact comprehension of the storytellers and different characters in the accounts. It brings home the way that absence of self articulation mess the psyche, making it difficult for the person to live calmly. Works Cited Saunders, George. CivilWarLand in awful decrease. New York: The Berkley Group, 1996.

How To Find Good Moral Essay Topics

How To Find Good Moral Essay TopicsSelecting a topic for your moral essay is easy. You will find that there are plenty of topics to choose from. You need to make sure that you find a topic that you can relate to and that has something to say about your field. There are many topics that can be chosen from, the main one being the topic of a 'moral dilemma.'When you hear the term 'moral dilemma,' you may think that it refers to a person who faces an 'impossible' choice or a scenario where the only possible outcome is either you lose or someone else loses. However, this term actually is used to refer to a situation where the choice that must be made is not necessarily between a good and evil outcome, but is in fact between two outcomes with different characteristics. In other words, this term refers to a situation where two 'types' of outcomes are both equally valid.If this seems a bit complicated, that is because it is a very complex topic and there are many factors that come into play when deciding if your situation qualifies as a moral dilemma. For example, you may find yourself facing a decision that involves moral issues such as you should give money to charity to help a child in need, yet you feel conflicted about the morality of the decision. If this situation arises, you will have to be very careful that you avoid jumping to conclusions and start arguing about your thoughts on the situation.Moral essay topics can be used in a number of ways. One way that they can be used is by asking the reader to consider their own moral compass and what type of decisions would best meet their own goals. This is called the 'fine-tuning' theory of morality and is one of the main topics in moral philosophy.Another method of using moral essay topics is to use the main topic of the essay to guide the discussion. You could choose to describe a situation that can be considered morally right or wrong and allow the reader to contrast that with another situation that can be conside red morally wrong. By doing this, you allow yourself to relate to the reader on the same level and to use the same topic to guide your arguments.The third method of using a moral dilemma to influence your writing is to use it as an inspiration. Your readers are likely to appreciate an article that provides an idea to their life or that inspires them to do something in which they may have not done before. Use the dilemma as an opportunity to tell your readers how they can apply to your topic. Use your inspiration to point out how your topic applies to their life or situation.Moral dilemmas are also a great way to get a fresh perspective on a topic. Consider this: have you ever read an essay where the author analyzed a situation and came up with some shocking information? Yet, at the same time, was the information accurate and understandable?This is a moral dilemma and the same thing can be said about your essay. The moral dilemma is an invitation to take a look at a situation in a ne w light and find a solution that helps you reach your goals.

Taiwan Major Industires - Free Essay Example

TAIWAN: MAJOR INDUSTRIES The major industries in Taiwan are electronics, petroleum refining, armaments, chemicals, textiles, iron and steel, machinery, cement, food processing, vehicles, consumer products, pharmaceuticals. We can have a look at the major industries one by one and then do an analysis on the investment opportunities on one of them. SEMICONDUCTOR INDUSTRY Taiwan has truly emerged as a global leader in the semiconductor and microelectronics industry and serves as the home of the worlds top IC foundries, Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Corporation (TSMC) and United Microelectronics (UMC), which hold a majority of the market share. Taiwan is also an important player in Mask ROM production, IC packaging and IC testing, accounting for 57.1%, 32% and 36% of global market shares respectively. Taiwan-based Advanced Semiconductor Engineering Inc (ASE) and Siliconware Precision Industries (SPIL) lead the IC packaging industry, while ASE Test and ChipMOS Technologies lead the IC testing industry. Taiwans IC design industry has ranked second only to the US, accounting for 28.4% of the market worldwide. Media Tek, VIA, Realtek and Sunplus are among the top 20 IC design houses. Taiwan ranks as the worlds 3rd largest maker of DRAM components, supplying 17.1% of the market. Taiwan also serves as a key IC market, with a value of US$11 billi on in 2002, representing 25.7% of the market in Asia and 8.1% of the global market. Competitive Advantage and Market Strengths Taiwan plays a major role in the global semiconductor industry, as the unique structure of its IC industry fosters close cooperation among diverse yet essential elements in the value chain, ranging from IC design and manufacturing to packaging and testing. Investment Opportunities and Market Potential The National Si-Soft Project was launched in 2003 in an effort to upgrade Taiwans IC industry from mainly contract manufacturing to RD and innovation oriented production. The project aims to make Taiwan the one-stop shop for IC designs, mix-and-match intellectual properties, manufacturing, and testing. The National Si-Soft Project is devoted to developing System-on-Chip (SoC) infrastructure in Taiwan. Specific contents of the Si-Soft Project include automation software, silicon intellectual property (IP), embedded software, and system single chip, which are all essential in IC design. New IC designs will in turn drive the development of information household appliances, photoelectricity, internet technologies, energy, communication, biological chips, and nanotechnology. The project offers various benefits such as: Providing available IP sources and a more simplified transaction flow for the IC design industry (including design services), in order to decrease the time required for IC design. Improving the competitiveness of practitioners in the system industry as they realize the system knowhow in their own SoC Effectively cultivating star IP vendors in the IP industry Attracting more customers with value-added products (more complete IP features) for chip manufacturers Allowing practitioners in the packaging and testing industries to interchange freely and learn about the most advanced technologies relevant to their field in order to further enhance their technological expertise DISPLAY AND OPTOELECTRONICS Taiwan has seen significant growth in its color imaging (CI) industry in recent years. The overall production value of the flat panel display (FPD) industry alone has increased more than twofold since 2001, totaling US$7.39 billion, of which 83.4% came from the production of large size TFT-LCD units. In Q1 2004, the islands Flat Panel Display (FPD) sales reached NT$171.3 billion (US$5.1 billion), a 115% increase on the previous year, and 2004 sales are projected to reach NT$727.1 billion (US$21.7 billion). As Taiwan manufacturers are positioned to start mass production on next generation panels (6th, 7th, and 7.5), the total production value of Taiwans FPD industry will surpass NT$1 trillion. Taiwan is currently expected to account for 41% of large-sized TFT-LCD panel supply in 2004, becoming the worlds largest production base. Major TFT-LCD makers in Taiwan, such as AU, Chi-Mei, CPT, QDI, Hannstar, Toppoly, and PVI, have contributed greatly to the progress of the CI industry. A U, which receives the majority of its funding from Taiwan, is the third largest panel supplier in the world, and is the largest producer in Taiwan. Chi Mei, the second largest producer in Taiwan, is fast approaching AU in terms of production value. Competitive Advantages and Market Strengths Over 30% of the key components for FPD, such as polarizers, backlight modules, color filters and driver ICs, are manufactured in Taiwan, and local component makers such as Optimax (polarizers), Forhouse and Radiant (backlights), Allied Material Technology, Cando and Sintek (color filters), Novatek and Winbond (driver ICs), work very closely with panel makers. These component and finished product manufacturers are clustered around the Taoyuan, Hsinchu, and Tainan areas, creating an integrated supply chain that further strengthens Taiwans position in the global IT industry. Investment Opportunities and Market Potential As Taiwan is the worlds second largest producer of panels and the market for components is quite large, the government is inviting foreign suppliers of materials and equipment to build factories in Taiwan, to enable faster and more effective product and service deliveries. Panel makers in Taiwan plan to establish G5 and G6 production lines, with the goal of becoming the leading panel supplier in the world. The government aims to generate US$40 billion in FPD production value by the year 2006. In the next three to four years, enterprises specializing in advanced components will have ample space for high growth potential. The government offers investors in the color imaging industry special tax reduction and investment incentives. Combined with a highly skilled workforce and abundant experience in the IT industry, Taiwan is the ideal destination for investment in the color imaging industry. Foreign Direct Investments in Taiwan The color imaging industry in Taiwan has grown very rapidly in the past few years. In light of an increasing demand for flat panels in the global market and strong competition, Taiwans vendors realize the importance of improving their technology and producing the right key components. The cost ratio for TFT-LCD components is quite high, with color filters at around 26% and glass substrate near 4%. Taiwans government has been active in soliciting foreign investors to manufacture these key components in Taiwan. BIOTECHNOLOGY AND PHARMACEUTICALS Taiwans concerted policy efforts to develop research, development and production capabilities in the biotech sector have paid off in creating a wealth of investment opportunities. Biotech research at Taiwans top academic institutions is gaining international attention, while development capabilities, fostered through joint industry and government support, are turning these research achievements into commercially viable products. Taiwans mature production and logistics capabilities, evidenced by its over 100 cGMP-awarded pharmaceutical manufacturers, have been widely recognized as powerhouses in this area. Goals for the Coming Decade Having established a solid foundation, the Taiwan government has designated the biotechnology industry for further development into a key industry in its Two Trillion, Twin Stars Plan and Challenge 2008 National Development Plan. Through the combined efforts of government, academia, research and industrial sectors, Taiwan is poised to become a major hub and logistics operations center for RD, manufacturing, and operations in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries within the Asia-Pacific region. The governments plans to promote the industry include achieving targets of NT$150 billion (US$4.34 billion) in investments and 25% annual revenue growth by 2008 and five hundred biotech-related companies within ten years. Competitive Advantages and Market Strengths Superior pharmaceutical production and manufacturing capabilities Geographically positioned close to potential markets in Asia allows for enhanced product development for Asian markets Excellent springboard for entering other Asian markets Ease of communication and reduced cultural barriers Strong venture capital and financial resources Abundance of technical specialists in organic chemistry, optoelectronics, integrated circuitry, automated systems, and other relevant fields Excellent research facilities and well-staffed healthcare organizations TELECOMMUNICATION Taiwan offers much potential in the telecommunications market, with one of the most advanced telecommunications networks in the region. High penetration rates in both the fixed-line and mobile phone sectors have encouraged growth in telecom products and services. Looking to 2004, the Ministry of Economic Affairs has announced plans to make the telecommunications industry one of Taiwans trillion dollar industries, which will nurture the development of wireless applications, 3G, and broadband services. Competitive Advantages and Market Strengths Taiwan is currently the fourth largest producer of PCs. As PC-related IC design and manufacturing technology in Taiwan have reached world standards, wireless communication and broadband communication products, related components/assemblies and systems products manufacturing technology have all been the beneficiaries of a multiplier effect. A growing number of Taiwan manufacturers boast manufacturing and marketing capabilities for res earch and development of xDSL, DLC, SDHH, DWDM, and cell-phone related products. If these are combined with telecommunications service capabilities of foreign companies, particularly in the area of content services, their ability to enter newly developing markets will surely stimulate a new wave of product demand. Taiwans world-class technological advantages enable it to benefit from US and Japanese RD resources. Taiwans central location in the Asian Pacific region provides ideal access to the emerging Mainland China and Southeast Asian markets and to manufacture highly-competitive communications technology products. For manufacturers advancing into newly developing markets, Taiwan remains the most advantageous base for business operations in the region. Investment Opportunities and Market Potential In order to establish Taiwan as a broadband communications technology island, the government has classified telecommunications as a strategic industry, allowing it to benefit from a host of investment and tax incentives. The Related Industries Promotion Plan is expected to facilitate the establishment of communication-oriented SoC IC design, fiber-optic components/assemblies, production facilities, software and telecommunications service industries innovation. IT product manufacturing is expected to reach its goal of surpassing US$ 30 billion by 2007. At the same time, in order to comply with telecommunications industry liberalization and national infrastructure requirements, Taiwan has in recent years gradually liberalized the 3G and wired network markets. Estimates for 2005 anticipate US$50 billion in equipment purchase orders and US$20 billion in telecommunication service industry revenues. Market opportunities are tremendous, making Taiwan the ideal investment destination for the equipment manufacturing industry and content service providers. MATERIALS AND FINE CHEMICALS The production value of the material and fine chemical industry in Taiwan has averaged approximately US$44.38 billion annually, with petrochemical materials, polymer, electrical materials and fine chemical products as major output. Taiwan is the largest producer of ABS, the second largest supplier of PTAs, and the fourth largest in PVCs, supplying the Taiwan domestic market and the worlds major markets, especially Mainland China. With a well-developed supplier chain and marketing channels all over the world, Taiwan plays a key role in many markets today. In fact, a growing number of leading companies, such as Chi-Mei, Nan Ya Plastics and Formosa Plastics in the material industry, and UPC, Dahin, Lee Chang Yung Chemical in the fine chemical industry, are emerging more visibly in the international markets. In addition, Eternal Chemical and Chang Chun Plastics in the electrical material industry, and Taiwan Shiseido, Grand Glory Biotechnology, Taiwan Sugar, and Taiwan Salt in the c osmetics industry are already well-established in their respective markets. As the IT industry becomes more competitive, Taiwans material and fine chemical industry has been focusing on semiconductors, plane display materials, print circuit boards, nanotechnology materials and other high value-added products. Investment Opportunities and Market Potentials Taiwan is home to a great number of talented RD and design people who are well-educated and possess experience with international companies, making the island more advantageous location for multinational companies to localize as part of a globalization strategy. In recent years, Taiwans IT industry has shown impressive progress the semiconductor, TFT-LCDs, and print circuit board industries are seeing dramatic growth and have reached large-scale production levels, thereby gaining strength in the international markets. The materials and fine chemical industry in Taiwan will be highly essential in supporting the IT industry and meeting its rigorous demands. The Challenge 2008 National Development Plan, a government-support project that shows a list of plans and incentives on land lease, funding, taxes, and other benefits, demonstrates the value that the materials and fine chemical industry brings to Taiwan. Taiwan has created vast opportunities for both international and domes tic firms, with Mainland China as the biggest and most prominent market. With its strategic geographical location and experience in world trade, Taiwan makes the ideal center for manufacturing and market development in the Asia-Pacific region. FINANCE, SECURITIES AND INSURANCE With foreign exchanges reserves of over US$200 billion at the end of 2003, and a forecasted 4.5% economic growth rate for 2004, Taiwan continues to maintain a robust economy, due in part to government action on internationalization and liberalization policies. Competitive Advantages Market Strengths As a growing number of global industries are migrating to the Far East, Taiwan is an ideal location to establish a financial base. Multinational companies in Taiwan have access to more precise information on the Asia-Pacific region as they expand their business. In recent years, East Asia has become an important investment location for European and American countries. Taiwans stock market index is covered in both Dow Jones and Morgan Stanleys stock indices, to the benefit of foreign investors. In addition, the government has loosened restrictions on foreign capital in the Taiwan stock market, bringing more attention to Taiwans market. Investment Opportunities and Market Potential In pursuing its goal of becoming the financial center of East Asia, Taiwan is revising its financial policies to bring them to international standards. Examples of such policies include: Lifting constraints on offshore banking units (OBUs) Policies include expanding the depth and breadth of foreign currency market, and broadening the offshore banking units market and foreign currency overnight rate market to attract foreign financial institutions and enhance Taiwans position as a regional funding center. Taiwan will therefore expand its stock and bond markets, improve market regulation and efficiency, and promote the internationalization of the securities market. Foreign investors can buy and sell securities, bonds and public warrants freely without restrictions of time or location, have more versatility in managing investments, and vitalize the market. Ongoing liberalization of capital markets for foreign investors the ROC government has opened up its stock market to forei gn investors with minimal restrictions. With the introduction of more financial commodities in the market and more diversified channels for funds, Taiwans capital markets are opening to increasing foreign investors, who are now allowed to manage derivative financial products instead of spot commodities. In addition, foreign capital is now permitted in the private placement market, and these newly available commodities are attracting more foreign investment. Opening the insurance market to foreign investors Fifty-five insurance companies are currently in operation in Taiwan, of which 21 are foreign-owned. Other measures to liberalize the Taiwan insurance market include: relaxing restrictions on the approval of commodities; liberalized rates; investment policies and procedures; the opening of cross-strait insurance exchanges; the promotion of risk-based capital (RBC) systems; information disclosure systems; and a certified actuary system. With monitoring of all foreign insurance c ompanies in Taiwan to ensure compliance with policies on remuneration for Taiwan citizens, the foreign insurance industry in Taiwan can operate in a fair and reasonable business environment. In addition, with the islands excellent location and workforce, Taiwan has the potential to become the Asian insurance market hub for foreign investors. Increasing the liquidity of financial capital in the stock market The Securitization of Financial Assets Law was implemented on July 24, 2002, with the aim of improving and increasing the liquidity of financial assets, including fully liberalized foreign investments in the public and private placement of securitization of financial assets. Several domestic banks are in the process of cooperating with foreign financial institutions in this regard. According to the rules for MFN and National Treatment, foreign invested banks in Taiwan can compete on an equal footing with domestic banks. They are all granted licenses and can operate as fully -functional branches in Taiwan. In addition, as stated in the Banking Law and Financial Holding Company Law, a foreign financial institution may invest up to a 100% stake in a domestic bank. Moreover, foreign banks and financial holding companies that have sufficient experience and a good reputation can hold shares of up to 100% under their original name. Foreign financial groups may merge with Taiwans local financial institutions under the Merger Law for Financial Institutions, which has been established for the purpose of regulating the merger of financial institutions, expanding economies of scale, enhancing the efficiency of financial institutions and protecting proper competition environments. The law provides a friendly legal environment and mechanism for the operation of Asset Management Companies. Flexible government restrictions allow foreign investors to set up their operations headquarters in Taiwan to conduct multilateral trade a growing trend for foreign companie s to gain a more competitive edge. ANALYSIS OF THE TAIWANESE BIOTECHNOLOGY SECTOR Taiwans biotechnology industry includes biotechnology, pharmaceuticals and medical devices. In 2003, the total annual revenue for these industries in Taiwan was approximately NT$131.6 billion, of which NT$29.6 billion came from biotechnology0.9 percent of the total global revenue-represented by 223 companies, each with an average revenue of NT$133 million. Business scope covered included genomics, drugs, diagnostics, agricultural biotechnology, environmental biotechnology, protein drugs, contract research organizations, biochips and bioinformatics. The islands pharmaceutical industry returned NT$61.4 billion,0.4 percent of the global total with 429 companies active in this sector, averaging NT$143 million per company. The medical devices industry returned NT$40.6 billion,0.6 percent of the global total, coming from 397 companies, with an average revenue of NT$102 million each. The biotechnology workforce size is 35,610, of which 7,200 are in the biotechnology industry, 14,224 in the pharmaceutical industry and 14,186 working in the medical devices industry. Status of Biotechnology Development in Taiwan (2003) Units: NT$100 million Industry Biotechnology Pharmaceutical Medial devices Total Revenue 296 614 406 1,316 Number of Companies 223 429 397 1,049 Size of work force (number) 7,200 14,224 14,186 35,610 Export value* 113 45 288 446 Import value* 120 339 425 884 Domestic sales vs. export 62:38 93:7 29:71 66:34 Domestic market demand* 303 908 543 1,754 BIOTECH INDUSTRY ANALYSIS: MICHAEL PORTERS FIVE FORCES MODEL Advantages and opportunities in Taiwans biotech industry Advantages: 1. Active and continuous efforts to build up an attractive investment environment by the government 2. Large input to investment of up- and mid-stream RD and infrastructure 3. Close bond with fast growing Asian markets 4. Sufficient domestic capital for investing from intensive partners 5. Solid foundation and experience from the past development of the electronics industry 6. Proper environment for the development of small- and medium-sized enterprises; and the diligent and aggressive entrepreneurial spirit of the Taiwanese 7. Ample biotechnology and pharmaceutical professionals based both locally and overseas 8. Relatively homogenous ethnic Chinese population, ideal for the development of an Asian-prevalent-disease-related biotech industry 9. Qualified RD personnel who are capable of establishing a knowledge economy to reflect Taiwans uniqueness 10. Advanced traditional agricultural technology to support development of agricultural biotechnology Opportunities: 1. The key industry in the governments Challenge 2008 six-year national development plan 2. The listed incentive industry among newly encouraged emerging strategic industries 3. Rising demand in better living standards in the Asia-Pacific; and growing economy and market for potential development 4. Increasing number of strategic alliances and technology transfer cases 5. RD and precision processing sectors are ready to take advantage of the growing global trend towards outsourcing in the biotechnology industry. 6. Right timing for endless business opportunities in post human gene decoding 7. High value-added, long life cycle and value chain of biotechnology; many points of entry available, from RD to marketing 8. Flourishing biotechnology RD service industries (technical evaluation, RD design, intellectual property services, and start-up incubation services) 9. Many large-sized high-quality medical centers, providing optimal conditions for undertaking clinic al trials 10. Clear market segmentation from temperate zone products of advanced countries with Taiwans sub-tropical climate to develop Asian sub-tropical agricultural biotechnology 11. Plentiful related information aggregated from National Health Insurance program 12. Diseases associated with a modern sedentary lifestyle, with potential for drug and disease screening technology platforms Objective. RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Although there are a few biotech companies but all of them are small scale operators. Hence a consolidation programme can be started. 2. Since biotech is going to help pharmaceutical companies in a big way hence pharma companies can make a conscious effort to start RD centers with emphasis on biotechnology. 3. Although the government is supportive of the sector but not many FDIs have been invited. The government can specifically invite FDIs in this sector. 4. Large companies like Biocon and Brighton Research labs should be asked to set up facilities. They can be promised access to markets in mainland China through Taiwan. 5. Most of the raw materials required is being imported, so the government can devise strategies to develop auxiliary industries and make the sector self sufficient. 6. Newer and more challenging topics can be taken up to study. Like human genome sequencing which would help in determining the genetic causes for diseases like cancer and AIDS.

Major Depressive Disorder And Major Depression - 1540 Words

Major Depressive Disorder and Major Depressive Episodes affect many across the country in various forms and degrees. Though many are affected by MDD/MDE most do not receive the help they need. A group that may not always be acknowledged in suffering from major depressive disorder/major depressive episodes are adolescents. Consequently, more often than not, adolescents do not receive a diagnosis or support with their struggles. Mental illness symptoms in adolescents may be dismissed for various of reasons, but can have a serious impact on various aspects of their lives.The struggles could be mitigated and managed by a public health approach. Public health approach may help to first collect the information on the extent of the issue. The†¦show more content†¦The National Survey on Drug use and Health found in 2014, 11. 4 percent of adolescents aged 12 to 17 (2. 8 million adolescents) had an MDE during the past year (SAMSHA). The pressures and struggles of being an adolescent c an only be exacerbated by major depressive episodes or even a diagnosis of major depressive disorder. Adolescents require support for their experiences and attention needs to be brought to their trials. . Major depression not only affects adolescents’ social and academic lives, but influence, directly, their actions and decisions as well. Adolescents can partake in numerous actions to cope with their feelings of depression such as taking drugs. The National Survey on Drug use and Health found that,Youths with a past year MDE in 2014 also were more likely than those without an MDE to be users of marijuana, nonmedical users of psychotherapeutics, users of inhalants, and users of hallucinogens in the past year (SAMSHA). The survey shows that MDE can put adolescents at a vulnerability to participate in risky behaviors. The world of drugs can be an outlet to deal with depression. This outlet though may even lead to a struggle with the very substances used to cope with their depres sion. The National Survey on Drug use and Health found as well that,†An estimated 340,000 adolescents aged 12 to 17 in 2014 had a co-occurring MDE and an SUD [substance use disorder] in the past year in 2014 (SAMSHA). The correlation of drug use andShow MoreRelatedMajor Depressive Disorder ( Depression )1020 Words   |  5 PagesMajor Depressive Disorder (Depression) is a mood disorder where a person has a constant feeling of sadness and complete loss of interest in everyday life. It is considered more serious than a case of the â€Å"blues† and might require long-term treatment. During major depressive disorder, the person thinks and behaves differently and may experience emotional and physical problems. Causes The exact cause has yet to be pinpointed. It is believed that specific neurotransmitters in the brain may stopRead MoreMajor Depressive Disorder ( Unipolar Depression ) And Bipolar Depression2296 Words   |  10 Pagesthe diagnosis of both Major Depressive Disorder (Unipolar depression) and Bipolar Depression can be made on the basis of characteristics of a Major Depressive Episode (MDE). That is, can an MDE in patients with Major Depressive Disorder be differentiated from a MDE in patients with Bipolar Disorder? Firstly, the extremes in mood, Major Depressive Episode and mania/hypomania will be defined and it will be explained how they contribute to a diagnosis of MDD or Bipolar Disorder based on the diagnosticRead MoreMajor Depressive Disorder849 Words   |  3 PagesMajor Depressive Disorder: Depression is a clinical condition associated with the normal emotions of bereavement and sadness. However, this condition does not pass on when the external causes of these emotions dissolve and is usually inconsistent to their cause. In essence, the classic severe conditions of depression have not been attributed to external precipitating cause. One of the most common conditions of depression is Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), which is a psychiatric condition thatRead MoreA Brief Description of Major Depressive Disorder Essay1368 Words   |  6 PagesThe word ‘depression’ has become a common everyday word. We hear the term ‘depression’ so frequently today, it’s even used in the contexts of jokes. For example you may hear someone say ‘My favorite show is over, now I have nothing to watch, I’m so depressed’. Obviously this person is not depressed, but we have come to overuse it in our expressions, to the point that is takes a way from the seriousness of this disorder. Major depressive disorder is a mood disorder characterized by at least two weeksRead MoreMajor Depressive Disorder. One Of The Most Commonly Diagnosed1367 Words   |  6 PagesMajor Depressive Disorder One of the most commonly diagnosed mental disorders in the United States is Major depressive disorder. Major depressive disorder is defined by the National Institute of Mental Health as a common but serious mood disorder that causes severe symptoms that affect how you feel, think, and handle daily activities, such as sleep, eating or working. For a doctor to diagnose you the symptoms must be present for a minimum of two weeks. Major depressive disorder is an umbrellaRead MoreSymptoms And Treatment Of Depression1015 Words   |  5 Pagesmental disorders, struggle to cope with everyday life due to their altered moods, thinking or behavior. Fortunately, treatment for mental illness or mental disorders can lead to recovery; and although treatment may include medication, it ideally also includes psychosocial therapies and support. The mental illness I will focus on is a mood disorder called depression, or major depressive disorder. Depression is the most common mood disorder, and one of the most common mental illnesses. Depression is aRead MoreSuicide Risk Factors For Major Depressive Disorder873 Words   |  4 PagesSuicide Risk Factors in Major Depressive Disorder Article Summary In patients with major depressive disorder, the risk of a completed suicide is nearly 20 times more likely than in non-depressed patients (Holma et al., 2010). Several risk factors for suicide have been identified in previous studies and include family history, gender, early onset of major depression, symptoms of psychosis, alcohol use, and comorbid disorders among other risk factors. Among the biggest risk factors for suicide areRead MoreSymptoms Of Major Depressive Disorder Essay1711 Words   |  7 Pages?Do you or someone that you now suffer from major depressive disorder? Major depressive disorder effects 6.7 percent of the adult American population; approximately 14.8 million Americans. It is a tragic fact that so many people suffer from depression at some point in their lives.?A diagnosis of major depressive disorder is given when a licensed counselor/ psychiatrist concludes that someone suffers from at least five of the nine symptoms listed in the DSM which are present for l onger than a twoRead MoreSummary Of The DSM-5877 Words   |  4 Pagesneed for a classification of mental disorders has been clear throughout the history of medicine. The American Psychiatric Association, the DSM was first published in 1984. The DSM-IV symptom criteria for major depressive disorder (MDD) are somewhat lengthy, many studies showing that treatment providers have difficulty recalling all nine symptoms (American Psychological Association, 2010). The symptom inclusion criteria for the diagnosis of major depressive disorder (MDD) have remained essentially unchangedRead MoreSueng-hui Cho1248 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿There are over 900 pages in the DSM-5, containing all of the mental disorders known to man. (APA, 2013, 165).One of those disorders is a severe case of depression known as â€Å"Major Depressive Disorder† or Major Depression. Major Depression currently affects 14.8 million adults in the United States alone. (APA, 2013, 165).Most adults that are diagno sed with major depressive disorder seek medical treatment or therapy. However, every year more than 1 million people commit suicide either before treatment

Research Outline Gay Marriage Essay - 2797 Words

Introduction The Controversy â€Å"Same-sex marriage permits couples of the same gender to enter legally-recognized marriages and provides them with the same legal rights as couples in heterosexual relationships† (Same-Sex Marriage). â€Å"Opponents of same-sex marriage argue that the institution of marriage should apply to only unions between one man and one woman. Allowing gay and lesbian couples to marry, they say, undermines the institution of marriage† (Same-Sex Marriage). Where the Issue Stands Today â€Å"In America, six states plus D.C. allow same-sex couples to marry, three more respect marriages of same-sex couples validly preformed in other states, eight provide civil unions or comprehensive domestic partnerships, and three more†¦show more content†¦Federal Marriage Amendment â€Å"Since 2002 opponents of same-sex marriage have worked to pass a Federal Marriage Amendment (FMA) to the U.S. Constitution. This amendment would define marriage as a union between one man and one woman. It has been introduced to the U.S. Congress in 2003, 2004, 2005, and 2008 but has failed to gain enough support to pass† (Same-Sex Marriage) Proposition 8 â€Å"On June 16, 2008, California began allowing same-sex couples to receive marriage licenses. But on November 4 of that year, Proposition 8 passed, again banning same-sex marriage† (Same-Sex Marriage). â€Å"Californias Proposition 8, which sought to ban same-sex marriage, is an attempt to suppress personal rights and force religious beliefs and codes of behavior on everyone, including non-believers. Narrow-minded interpretations of faith often have led to self-righteousness and oppression of others, and they are again on the rise† (Stone). â€Å"One might argue that Proposition 8 discriminates against gays and lesbians in violation of the Equal Protection Clause. One might argue that Proposition 8 unconstitutionally limits the fundamental right to marry. One might argue that Proposition 8 violates the separation of church and state† (Stone). Issue 2: Domestic Partnership and Civil Unions v. Marriage Difference in Rights â€Å"The right to marry is not just about the actual legal ceremony, but an equal right to the extensive list of legal protections awarded to married couples. These benefitsShow MoreRelatedA Brief Note On Sociological Factors On Clients1666 Words   |  7 Pagessupport all minorities, specifically same-sex couples King (cited in Australian Marriage Equality, 2015) stated â€Å"When any society says that I cannot marry a certain person, that society has cut off a segment of my freedom†. This quote from Martin Luther King Jr is as applicable today to legalising same-sex marriage as it was to the civil rights movement and inter-racial marriage over half a century ago. Marriage is a right that most Australians take for granted. Studies have shown that havingRead MoreLegalization of Gay Marriage1319 Words   |  6 PagesSEM I SPEECH PREPARATION OUTLINE PREPARED BY: REGINA KHOR MAY LIN AA09179 Relationship Should we legalize same-sex marriage in our country? To persuade To persuade my audience that we should legalize same-sex marriage in our country. Same-sex marriage should be legalized since it is the natural form of the marriage evolution, part of human rights and able to prevent psychological stress from the LGB community. (LGB- lesbian, gays and bisexuals) Problem and solution Read MoreEssay about Opposition Toward Same Sex Marriage883 Words   |  4 PagesMany arguments against same sex marriage are based on religion. Orthodox Christians, for example, view marriage as a reunion of the essence of man and the essence of woman as portrayed in the book of Genesis. The bible statesâ€Å" If a man lies with a man as one lies with a woman, both of them have done what is detestable. They must be put to death; their blood will be on their own heads.† (The NIV Study Bible, Lev 20.13). The United States however was not founded on, and is not ran upon, the laws ofRead MoreThe Uk Civil Partnership Act 20041670 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction The introduction of the article involves analysis of various literature and researches on the policies and laws that govern lesbian and gay equality. The mention of the different definitions and arguments pave the way for the introduction of the UK Civil Partnership Act 2004 (Taylor 589). According to the introduction part of the reading, same-sex legal recognition has always revolved around two specific positions that are framing the lesbian law towards equality or view acknowledgmentRead MoreThe Fight For Equal Rights For Same Sex Marriages Across The United States1393 Words   |  6 PagesThe Fight for Equal Rights for Same-Sex Marriages across the United States Having one loving parent is good. Having two loving parents is great. Having a mother and a father is traditional. Having two mothers or two fathers is wrong. This is what we are told to believe but as we learn from our past and grow as a society, we start to look for positive change in which our values are challenged and the truth becomes clear. It is not right to take away the basic rights of a person because ofRead MorePolicy Advice Memorandum: Equality of Marriage1326 Words   |  5 PagesEquality of Marriage Issue: It is becoming increasingly difficult to defend the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA). One of the Republican congresspersons who helped write the act is currently opposing it. In Lehmans words, many Republicans believe its only a matter of time until DOMA is repealed, (cited by Bendery, 2012, p. 2). Therefore, it would be wise for the president to take an affirmative, and firm, stances in favor of legislation that expressly and unequivocally supports marriage equalityRead MoreThe Biological Basis Toward Sexual Orientation1406 Words   |  6 Pagesover the years. Wouldn’t you agree? As much change as the world has been through there are still numerous social problems that still exist in society today. Amongst those numerous social problems, sexual orientation and inequality stand out to me. Research from biology, psychology, and sociology is where our understanding of sexual orientation comes from. There are two hypothetical theories researchers have discovered examining the biological basis toward sexual orientation. One concept is the neurohormonalRead MoreGeorge Chauncey s Gay New York Essay1512 Words   |  7 PagesI will be writing about George Chauncey’s Gay New York. In this text, George Chauncey seeks to restore that world to history, to chart its geography, and to recapture its culture and politics by challenging three widespread myths about the history of gay life before the rise of the gay movement. These include the myths of isolation, invisibility and internalization. The homosexual community is considered a subculture to the heterosexual community, which identifies as the dominant culture. GeorgeRead MoreBule 3031123 Words   |  5 Pagesnon-Christian religions.) 2.Page 110 of your text has a section on marriage equality and the Constitution. This section explains why marriage equality can become a business related issue. Explain why, using one of the examples in this article. ` (a business should acts neutral about this case. they should not side with either gay nor anti-gay marriage. it could lead to discrimination. they should threat their employee equally too whether they are gay or straight) ((Business organizations should retain a neutralRead MoreLegal Issues For Gay And Lesbian Adoption And Parental Rights1626 Words   |  7 PagesSelbrede, JD FROM: Faith Carter DATE: October 13, 2015 RE: Legal Issues for Gay and Lesbian Adoption and Parental Rights Issue Although adoption can be difficult for any single person or married couple, adoption for the gay and lesbian population presents a unique set of challenges both societal and legal. Whether constitutional or not, special rules apply to same gay and lesbian adoption. Under current legislation, is same sex adoption fully legal and how do the laws on

Course Works about Abortion When Is the Fetus Viable and What Does That Mean

The origin of the term abortion is from the Latin abortio, meaning to abort, miscarry or deliver prematurely. An abortion can occur due to a problematic pregnancy, health issues or conditions of the mother or several other situational circumstances, but normally the word applies to simply medically terminating the pregnancy. There two types of abortions: therapeutic, to spare the health of the mother and elective which applies to the procedure when it is performed for any other reason. Although Roe v. Ward legally affirmed the right for women to terminate their pregnancies in 1973, this medical procedure has been hotly debated and/or contested right to the present. In fact, anti-abortion violence claimed the lives of Dr. David Gunn in 1993, Shannon Lowry and Lee Ann Nichols in 1994, Dr. Barnett Slepian in 1998 and Dr. George Tiller in 2009. Presently most of the controversy swirls around late- term abortions, where the fetus is removed until the 27th week of gestation. As the federal government allows the states to regulate and create their own abortion laws, the legal trend over the last two decades has been either to outlaw or severely restrict late term abortions. According to statistics compiled by the Guttmacher Institute, 22 states ban abortions at fetal viability, meaning the fetus has a 50 percent chance of survival outside the womb, four states do not allow an abortion in the third trimester, and 15 restrict the procedure after a certain amount of weeks, usually that is 24. (Guttmacher Institute, 2013). Legally speaking, the Supreme Court has struck down most state bans on late-term abortions due to several factors, but one of the most important was the inability of the physicians called as witnesses to determine when the fetus was actually viable or considered to be a living, breathing person. This issue is definitely the main reason this form of abortion is so divisive. In fact, a USA Today/Gallop Poll performed in December 2012, showed 59 percent of Americans still supported Roe v. Wade, yet 80 percent of the people polled thought third trimester abortions should be illegal. (Saad, 2013). In February, New York Governor Andrew Cuomo caused quite a stir when he introduced a bill relaxing restrictions on late-term abortions, which currently can only be performed if the life of the mother is in peril and North Dakota became the most restrictive state on abortions over the last several months, when Governor Dalrymple signed a bill prohibiting abortion at six weeks or when there is a fetal heart beat. The latest abortion debate is centered around what is perceived as an attempt by media to not thoroughly cover the murder trial of Dr. Kermit Gosnell, a Philadelphia physician who performed late-term abortions. Gosnell is charged with eight counts of murder after sedating a woman during the procedure and for actually taking the lives of seven babies he delivered. As more macabre details emerge from the case, including the suspicion Gosnell used scissors to sever the spinal cords shortly after delivery, it only serves to make the key issue and/or late-term abortion question more strident. When does a fetus become viable? Is there a concise measurement? The legal standard was established by the Supreme Court in Roe v. Wade as 28 weeks, but conceded it could occur as early as 24 and scientifically there is no set standard, although neonatal intensive care would not be commonly offered if the fetus was less than 24 weeks. This is changing, however, due to the rise of medical technology and a fetus can now be saved at 21 weeks. In his article Limits of Fetal Liability and It’s Enhancement, GH Breborowicz discusses what viability truly means and determines it varies globally. Is not easily identified and needs to be assessed both physically as well as technologically. Breborowicz claims one out of every 10 infants survives at 23 weeks, but just a week later the survival rate increases to 50 percent. His work buttresses that without further study, a fetus is viable at roughly 24 weeks, but sheds no more scientific light on the issue (Breborowicz, 50). For her evaluation Jane English examined various articles on what constitutes murder, what constitutes a person and when is a fetus viable to review the moral arguments for and against abortion. After her review, English decided abortion in the early stages of a pregnancy, when the fetus was not necessarily considered to be a person was entirely acceptable because the evolution of life is a gradual process and when a fetus becomes a person might never truly be answered or at least not for some time. As the pregnancy progresses, however, so does the development of the fetus and abortions would be morally wrong in the later stages pregnancy. They should be performed only when the mother’s life is at risk. Four decades after abortion was formally legalized, the war over the institution persists namely because conservatives contend life begins at conception, while liberals feel a woman should have the choice to decide what she would like to do with her own body and that a fetus does not become a person until it is born. Even with all the available medical technology from last two decades, scientists and physicians cannot supply an exact measurement or timetable for when a fetus truly becomes viable. Until that occurs the Supreme Court’s standard will still stand and war over abortion will continue to be waged until the legal precedent is overhauled by definitive, scientific evidence of fetal viability as there will always be a grey area. It is not black and white. References Blake, Aaron. (2013). Andrew Cuomo’s late-term abortion push. The Washington Post. Retrieved from http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/the-fix/wp/2013/02/20/cuomos-logical- but-risky-late-term-abortion-push/. Breborowicz, GH. (2001). Limits of fetal viability and its enhancement. Early Pregnancy.2001 January 5 (1): 49-50. Hoye, Sarah. (2013). Medical Examiner had to thaw fetal remains in Philly Abortion Doctor Case. Retrieved from http://www.cnn.com/2013/04/16/us/pennsylvania-abortion-doctor/. Guttmacher Institute. (2013). Abortion Statistics. (Data File). Retrieved from http://www.guttmacher.org/datacenter/index.jsp. Keen, Judy. (2013). North Dakota Governor signs nation’s strictest abortion laws. USA Today. March 29, 2013. Retrieved from http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/03/26/north-dakota-abortion-ban/2021215/. MacPherson, James. (2013). North Dakota Governor signs ‘fetal pain’measure. USA Today. April 16, 2013. Retrieved from http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/04/16/abortion-fetal-pain-dakota/2089571/. Nordqvist, Christian. (2009) What is an Abortion?. Medical News Today. Retrieved from http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/releases/145870.php. Saad, Lydia. (2013). Majority of Americans Still Support Roe v. Wade Decision. Gallop   Politics. Retrieved from http://www.gallup.com/poll/160058/majority-americans-support-roe-wade-decision.aspx?ref=more.

Climate Analysis On Climate Archives - 1612 Words

There is significant evidence from studies based on climate archives that the Earth’s climate about 10 000 years ago was very different from the present climate; it has changed a lot since the last glacial period which ended about 10 000- 12 000 years ago (Chappell, 1998). Hence, about 10 000 years ago the Earth was buried under ice sheets and it was much cooler than present temperatures (see Figure 1, Appendix) (Chappell, 1998). The Earth that has been cycling between cold and warm climates for ages and is currently in the interglacial period where it has slowly become warmer along with a rise in sea level (Watts, 2009). There are many climate archives which can help scientists study past climates and their development over time. Climate†¦show more content†¦Corals were first discovered about 200 million years, however most have grown over the last 10 000 years. Therefore, corals are great climate archives to use in order to study the climate from the last 10 000 yea rs. Corals also have a wide array of climatic history stored within them (Introduction: Coral Reefs, 2015). They have a long lifetime and rapid growth which makes them ideal climate archives for studying the past climate (Ocean Circulation and Climate Dynamics, 2015). Along with the corals there is the foraminifera; also referred to as sea floor fossils. These sea floor fossils are often found in sediment cores and can reveal a variety of things about the past climate through ocean currents, temperature and oxygen ratios. Also these fossils are the most common source of paleoceanographic proxies, making them easily available (Kucera, 2007). Hence, foraminifera or sea floor fossils are an ideal climate archives for studying the past climate from about 10 000 years ago alongside corals. Information about the past climate can not only help us understand our present climate but can also help predict our future climate trends. Corals, which are one of the climate archives been discussed, are living organisms who produce a calcium carbonate skeleton to make themselves look like rocks. The calcium carbonate bands found in corals help form permanent records of seasonal and annual climate changes. Corals are a type of biotic proxy; which are proxies based on the

Folly in William Shakespeares King Lear Essay - 2875 Words

Folly in William Shakespeares King Lear In East Coker, T. S. Eliot pleads Do not let me hear / Of the wisdom of old men, but rather of their folly†¦. (Eliot 185) The folly of old men must surely be a central trope in any discussion of Shakespeares imposing tragic accomplishment, King Lear. Traditional interpretations of the play, drawing on the classical Aristotelian theory of tragedy, have tended to view Lears act of blind folly as hamartia, precipitating the disintegration of human society. In the ensuing crisis, the basic ties of nature fall apart to reveal a chaos where humanity must prey on itself like monsters of the deep. and evil is immanent and overflows from the smallest breach of nature. (Mercer 252)†¦show more content†¦But to the extent that we ourselves are leaving behind that Enlightenment battery of critical concepts centered on a transcendent author, transhistorical subjectivity and value, and transparent, single-levelled meaning, then, as has been widely understood, a new early modern period emerges, one in which poems and plays are complexly connected with every other cultural ebb and flow of the time, when authorship was far from an established cultural form, when meaning and interpretation were unstable and disjunctive as the fictive Hamlet and the historical Montaigne insisted, and when the individual self was constituted through processes and logic far less unitary and less stable than those assumed in many of the ideologies of the classical bourgeois epoch. (Grady 8) In this view the Renaissance, as the immediate precursor of modernity, has a special symmetry with the current period (modernitys immediate successor). The early modern period saw a brief emergence of a Renaissance skeptical mentality characterized by the free play of the fragments and shards of the collapsed earlier systems and of newer discourses coming into being. (Grady 17) In the context of such a mentality, King Lear looks less like a stableShow MoreRelatedEssay The Foolishness of Fools in Shakespeares King Lear1706 Words   |  7 PagesThe Foolishness of Fools in Shakespeares King Lear Shakespeares tragedy King Lear is comprised of many distinct themes. His contrasts of light and dark, good and evil, and his brilliant illustration of parallels between the foolishness of the plays characters and society allowed him to craft a masterpiece. Just as well, Shakespeares dynamic use of linguistic techniques such as pun and irony aid this illustration of the perfect microcosm, not only of 16th century Britain, but of all timesRead MoreTheme Of Madness In King Lear976 Words   |  4 Pagesis the result. Ruler of the land, King Lear, betrayed by those he loves, struggles to continue on his life through means of sanity. In William Shakespeare’s play King Lear, madness is brought about through one’s power of authority, self-esteem, and internal conflict. Madness, as a result, is seen when one upholds the highest rank in power. In King Lear, Lear upholds the authority in the kingdom, using his power in forms of abuse, thus resulting in his madness. Lear abuses his power when it is timeRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s King Lear1550 Words   |  7 PagesINTRODUCTION: By facilitating the growth of evil within William Shakespeare’s King Lear, it is evident that the tragedy’s protagonist, King Lear can be held accountable for his own victimization and ultimate downfall. The most notable aspects of this self-induced victimization include Lear’s own lack of practical wisdom and divergence from the natural order, combined with the neglect of kingship, that enables Lear as a tragic hero to create the conceptual framework in which the ulterior motives ofRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s A Midsummer Night s Dream And Fool1401 Words   |  6 Pagesrecurring character type in the works of William Shakespeare. While their individual personalities and functions differ from play to play, the reoccurrence of the Shakespearean fool suggests that fools serve as an important institution of the Shakespearean stage. But what is the role of the Shakespeare’s fools in his works? And how do particular characteristics about these fools help the m achieve this purpose? Through an in-depth analysis of Shakespeare’s arguably two most famous fools, Puck (RobinRead More Tragic Figures in King Lear by William Shakespeare Essay1332 Words   |  6 PagesTragic Figures - Good/Evil in King Lear      Ã‚  Ã‚   King Lear, by William Shakespeare, is a tragic tale of filial conflict, personal transformation, and loss.   The story revolves around the King who foolishly alienates his only truly devoted daughter and realizes too late the true nature of his other two daughters.  Ã‚   A major subplot involves the illegitimate son of Gloucester, Edmund, who plans to discredit his brother Edgar and betray their father.   With these and other major characters in theRead More Essay on Blame in Shakespeares King Lear581 Words   |  3 Pages King Lear is To Blame nbsp; In William Shakespeares play, King Lear, the main character, King Lear, claims to be a man more sinned against than sinning(3.2.60-61). Though a good king, King Lears own actions cause his family and kingdom to fall apart. The sins committed against King Lear are a result of his personal faults of rashness, blindness, and foolishness. nbsp; King Lears hot temper and hasty decisions play a significant role in his fall from grace. His old age has causedRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s King Lear1470 Words   |  6 PagesShakespeare’s tragedies accentuate the qualities of human behavior and interactions with others when faced with adversity where the emotions of greed, ambition and madness are strongly expressed. Insight into the character’s psyche and moral values is explored to give understanding of the logic and reasoning behind the ways humans act. Harboring a universal and timeless quality, Shakespeare’s plays have the ability to exceed the restraints of the cultural values during the Elizabethan era, makingRead MoreThe Integrity of Humanity Explored in The Tragedy of King Lear1119 Words   |  5 Pageshave the ability to make choices based on reason, while the animals of the earth have only the capacity to choose the best option for their own survival. Human reasoning, both gracious and grave is w itnessed in the words of William Shakespeare’s play, The Tragedy of King Lear. 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Similarly, Morrie Schwartz in the popular nonfiction book Tuesdays with Morrie does not fully come to terms with himself and what is valuable inRead MoreEssay foolear Importance of the Fool in Shakespeares King Lear1195 Words   |  5 PagesImportance of the Fool in King Lear    William Shakespeares genius came from how closely he intertwined the two seemingly mutually exclusive realms to appeal to all socio-economic groups in his audience. The character of the Fool provides the closest intercourse of the two realms between King Lears royalty and Poor Toms poverty, while still maintaining their separation. The Fools role in King Lear was to counteract the Kings follies in order to bring him to his senses. With his honesty

EPISTEMOLOGY AND METHODOLOGY MAIN TRENDS AND ENDS. (Ýïèñòåìîëîãèÿ è Ìåòîäîëîãèÿ) free essay sample

Anton Matyukhin ICEF, GROUP 3, ENGLISH GROUP 1. ESSAY IN PHILOSOPHY EPISTEMOLOGY AND METHODOLOGY: MAIN TRENDS AND ENDS. # 1052 ; # 1077 ; # 1078 ; # 1076 ; # 1091 ; # 1085 ; # 1072 ; # 1088 ; # 1086 ; # 1076 ; # 1085 ; # 1099 ; # 1081 ; # 1048 ; # 1085 ; # 1089 ; # 1090 ; # 1080 ; # 1090 ; # 1091 ; # 1090 ; # 1069 ; # 1082 ; # 1086 ; # 1085 ; # 1086 ; # 1084 ; # 1080 ; # 1082 ; # 1080 ; # 1080 ; # 1060 ; # 1080 ; # 1085 ; # 1072 ; # 1085 ; # 1089 ; # 1086 ; # 1074 ; , 1 # 1082 ; # 1091 ; # 1088 ; # 1089 ; , # 1042 ; # 1099 ; # 1089 ; # 1096 ; # 1072 ; # 1103 ; # 1096 ; # 1082 ; # 1086 ; # 1083 ; # 1072 ; # 1101 ; # 1082 ; # 1086 ; # 1085 ; # 1086 ; # 1084 ; # 1080 ; # 1082 ; # 1080 ; . 30.03.1999. Table OF Contentss: 1.Epistemology. 2. History. 3. Epistemology as a subject 4. TWO EPISTEMOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 5. Deductions. 6.Methodology. 7. Some Mental Activities Common to All Methods. 8. Observation and Experiment. 9. Analysis and Synthesis. 10. Imagination, Supposition and Idealisation. 11. Inference. 12. Comparison and Analogy. 13. Categorization. 14. Inductive and deductive methods. 15.The Deductive-inductive Method. 16.RELATION OF EPISTEMOLOGY TO OTHER BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY 17.Bibliography. Epistemology. Epistemology is one of the chief subdivisions of doctrine ; its capable affair concerns the nature, beginning, range, and bounds of human cognition. The name is derived from the Grecian footings episteme( cognition ) and logos( theory ) , and consequently this subdivision of doctrine is besides referred to as the theory of cognition. It is the subdivision of doctrine that investigates the basic nature of cognition, including its beginnings and proof. Epistemology is concerned with the basic relationship between adult male # 8217 ; s head and world, and with the basic operations of human ground. It hence sets the criterions for the proof of all cognition ; it is the cardinal supreme authority of cognitive method. Epistemology as a term in doctrine Washingtonsprob # 173 ; competently foremost applied, by J. F. Ferrier, to that section of idea whose capable affair is the nature and cogency of cognition ( Gr. epistimum,cognition, and Sons,theory, account ; Ger. Erkenntnistheorie ) .It is therefore contrasted with metaphysics, which considers the nature of world, and with psychological science, which deals with the nonsubjective portion of knowledge, and, as Prof. James Ward said, is basically familial in its method. Epistemology is con # 173 ; cerned instead with the possibility of cognition in the abstract. In the development of thought epistemic enquiry succeeded the guesss of the early minds, who concerned themselves chiefly with efforts to explicate being. The differences of sentiment, which arose on this job of course, led to the enquiry as to whether any universally valid statement was possible. The Sophists and the Sceptics, Plato and Aristotle, the Stoics and the Epicureans took up t he inquiry and from the clip of Locke and Kant it has been prominent in modern doctrine. It is highly hard, if non impossible, to pull a difficult and fast line between epistemology and other subdivisions of doctrine. If, for illustration, doctrine is divided into the theory of cognizing and the theory of being, it is impossible wholly to divide the latter ( Ontology ) from the analysis of cognition ( Epistemology ) , so near is the connexion between the two. Again, the relation between logic in its widest sense and the theory of cognition is highly close. Some minds have identified the two, while others regard Epistemology as a subdivision of logic ; others de # 173 ; marcate their comparative domains by restricting logic to the scientific discipline of the Torahs of idea, i.e. ,to formal logic. An effort has been made by some philosophers to replace Gnosiology for Epistemology as a particular term for that portion of Epistemology which is confined to systematic analysis of t he constructs employed by ordinary and scientific idea in inter # 173 ; preting the universe, and including an probe of the art of cognition, or the nature of cognition as such. Epistemology would therefore be reserved for the wide inquiries of the beginning, nature and bounds of cognition . The term Gnosiology has non come into general usage. History. History. Epistemic issues have been discussed throughout the history of doctrine. Among the ancient Greeks, inquiries of cognition were raised by Plato and Aristotle, every bit good as by the Sophists and the Sceptics, and many of the main issues, places and statements were explored at this clip. In the systems of Plato and Aristotle, nevertheless, epistemic inquiries were mostly subordinated to metaphysical 1s, and epistemology did non emerge as a distinguishable country of enquiry. The pedants of the late medieval period were particularly concerned with two epistemic inquiries: the relationship between ground and religion, and the nature of constructs and universals. The major places on the latter issue # 8212 ; pragmatism, nominalism, and conceptualism # 8212 ; were defined during this period. The Reformation and the rise of modern scientific discipline raised inquiries about cognitive methodological analysis, and gave rise to a metempsychosis of doubting philosophies, tendencies that culminated in the Hagiographas of Rene Descartes ( 1596-1650 ) . During the modern period, from Descartes to Immanuel Kant ( 1724-1804 ) , epistemic concerns were at the head of doctrine, as minds attempted to understand the deductions of the new scientific discipline. They besides attempted, unsuccessfully, to cover with doubting onslaughts on the cogency of sense perceptual experience, constructs, and initiation. In the 19th and twentieth centuries, epistemic issues continued to have attending from philosophers of assorted schools, including Idealism, Logical Positivism, and Linguistic Analysis. A acquaintance with the history of doctrine provides the best debut to epistemology. The undermentioned plants are of particular importance for epistemology: # 183 ; Plato, Theaetetus # 183 ; Aristotle, Posterior Analytics # 183 ; Rene Descartes, Meditations # 183 ; John Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding # 183 ; David Hume, An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding Immanuel Kant, Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics Immanuel Kant, Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysicss Epistemology as a subject. Why should at that place be such a topic as epistemology? Aristotle provided the reply when he said that doctrine begins in admiration, in a sort of bewilderment about things. About all human existences wish to grok the universe they live in, a universe that includes the person every bit good as other individuals, and most people construct hypotheses of changing grades of edification to assist them do sense of that universe. No speculations would be necessary if the universe were simple ; but its characteristics and events defy easy account. The ordinary individual is likely to give up someplace in the procedure of seeking to develop a coherent history of things and to rest content with whatever grade of apprehension he has managed to accomplish. Philosophers, in contrast, are struck by, even obsessed by, affairs that are non instantly comprehendible. Philosophers are, of class, ordinary individuals in all respects except possibly one. They aim to build theories about the universe and its dwellers that are consistent, synoptic, true to the facts and that possess explanatory power. They therefore carry the procedure of enquiry further than people by and large tend to make, and this is what stating that they have developed a doctrine about these affairs agencies. Epistemologists, in peculiar, are philosophers whose theories deal with mystifiers about the nature, range, and bounds of human cognition. Like ordinary individuals, epistemologists normally start from the premise that they have plentifulness of cognition about the universe and its many-sided characteristics. Yet, as they reflect upon what is presumptively known, epistemologists begin to detect that normally accepted strong beliefs are less unafraid than originally assumed and that many of adult male s firmest beliefs are doubtful or perchance even chimeral. Anomalous characteristics of the universe that most people notice but tend to understate or disregard cause such uncertainties and vacillations. Epistemologists notice these things excessively, but, in inquiring about them, they come to gain that they provide profound challenges to the cognition claims that most persons happily and unreflectingly accept as true. What so are these perplexing issues? While there is a huge array of anomalousnesss and perplexities, two of these issues will be briefly described in order to exemplify why such troubles call into inquiry common claims to hold knowledge about the universe. TWO EPISTEMOLOGICAL PROBLEMS Our cognition of the external universe . Most people have noticed that vision can play fast ones on them. A consecutive stick put in H2O expressions bent to them, but they know it is non ; railway paths are seen to be meeting in the distance, yet one knows that they are non ; the wheels of waggons on a film screen appear to be traveling rearward, but one knows that they are non ; and the pages of English-language books reflected in mirrors can non be read from left to compensate, yet one knows that they were printed to be read that manner. Each of these phenomena is therefore misdirecting in some manner. If human existences were to accept the universe as being precisely as it looks, they would be mistaken about how things truly are. They would believe the stick in H2O truly to be dead set, the railroad paths truly to be convergent, and the authorship on pages truly to be reversed. These are ocular anomalousnesss, and they produce the kinds of epistemic edginesss referred to above. Though they may look to the ordinary indivi dual to be simple jobs, non deserving serious notice, for those who ponder them they pose hard inquiries. For case, human existences claim to cognize that the stick is non truly dead set and the paths non truly convergent. But how do they cognize that these things are so? Suppose one says that this is known because, when the stick is removed from the H2O, one can see that it is non dead set. But does seeing a consecutive stick out of H2O provide a good ground for thought that it is non dead set when seen in H2O? How does one know that, when the stick is put into the H2O, it does non flex? Suppose one says that the paths do non truly meet because the train base on ballss over them at that point. How does one know that the wheels on the train do non go on to meet at that point? What justifies opposing some beliefs to others, particularly when all of them are based upon what is seen? One sees that the stick in H2O is dead set and besides that the stick out of the H2O is non dead set. Why is the stick declared truly to be straight ; why in consequence is precedence given to one perceptual experience over another? One possible response to these questions is that vision is non sufficient to give cognition of how things are. One needs to rectify vision in some other manner in order to get at the opinion that the stick is truly consecutive and non dead set. Suppose a individual asserts that his ground for believing the stick in H2O is non dead set is that he can experience it with his custodies to be straight when it is in the H2O. Feeling or touching is a manner of sense perceptual experience, although different from vision. What, nevertheless, justifies accepting one manner of perceptual experience as more accurate than another? After all, there are good grounds for believing that the haptic sense gives rise to misperception in merely the manner that vision does. If a individual chills one manus and warms the other, for illustration, and inserts both into a bath of H2O holding a unvarying medium temperature, the same H2O will experience warm to the cold manus and cold to the warm manus. Therefo re, the haptic sense can non be trusted either and certainly can non by itself be counted on to decide these troubles. Another possible response is that no manner of perceptual experience is sufficient to vouch that one can detect how things are. Therefore, it might be affirmed that one needs to rectify all manners of perceptual experience by some other signifier of consciousness in order to get at the opinion, say, that the stick is truly consecutive. Possibly that other manner is the usage of ground. But why should ground be accepted as infallible? It besides suffers from assorted liabilities, such as forgetting, misestimating, or leaping to decisions. And why should one trust ground if its decisions run counter to those gained through perceptual experience, since it is obvious that much of what is known about the universe derives from perceptual experience? Clearly there is a web of troubles here, and one will hold to believe hard in order to get at a clear and defendable account of the seemingly simple claim that the stick is truly consecutive. A individual who accepts the challenge will, in consequence, be developing a theory for coping with the celebrated job called our cognition of the external universe. That job turns on two issues, viz. , whether there is a world that exists independently of the person s perceptual experience of it in other words, if the grounds one has for the being of anything is what one perceives, how can one cognize that anything exists unperceived? and, 2nd, how one can cognize what anything is truly similar, if the perceptual grounds one has is conflicting. The other heads job. The 2nd job besides involves seeing but in a slightly unusual manner. It deals with that which one can non see, viz. the head of another. Suppose a adult female is scheduled to hold an operation on her right articulatio genus and her sawbones tells her that when she wakes up she will experience a crisp hurting in her articulatio genus. When she wakes up, she does experience the hurting the sawbones alluded to. He can hear her groaning and see certain deformations on her face. But he can non experience what she is experiencing. There is therefore a sense in which he can non cognize what she knows. What he claims to cognize, he knows because of what others who have undergone operations tell him they have experienced. But, unless he has had a similar operation, he can non cognize what it is that she feels. Indeed, the state of affairs is still more complicated ; for, even if the physician has had such a surgical intercession, he can non cognize that what he is experiencing after his operation is precisely the same esthesis that the adult female is experiencing. Because each individual s esthesis is private, the sawbones can non truly cognize that what the adult female is depicting as a hurting and what he is depicting as a hurting are truly the same thing. For all he knows, she could be mentioning to a esthesis that is entirely different from the one to which he is touching. In short, though another individual can comprehend the physical manifestations the adult female exhibits, such as facial faces and assorted kinds of behavior, it seems that merely she can hold cognition of the contents of her head. If this appraisal of the state of affairs is right, it follows that it is impossible for one individual to cognize what is traveling on in another individual s head. One can speculate that a individual is sing a certain esthesis, but one can non, in a rigorous sense of the term, know it to be the instance. If this analysis is right, one can reason that each human being is necessarily and even in rule cut off from holding cognition of the head of another. Most people, conditioned by the great progresss of modern engineering, believe that in rule there is nil in the universe of fact about which scientific discipline can non obtain cognition. But the other-minds job suggests the contrary viz. , that there is a whole sphere of private human experience that is immune to any kind of external enquiry. Therefore, one is faced with a profound mystifier, one of whose deductions is that there can neer be a scientific discipline of the human head. Deductions. These two jobs resemble each other in certain ways and differ in others, but both have of import deductions for epistemology. First, as the divergent perceptual experiences about the stick indicate, things can non merely be, as they appear to be. People believe that the stick, which looks set when it is in the H2O, is truly consecutive, and they besides believe that the stick, which looks directly when it is out of the H2O, is truly consecutive. But, if the belief that the stick in H2O is truly consecutive is right, so it follows that the perceptual experience human existences have when they see the stick in H2O can non be right. That peculiar perceptual experience is misdirecting with regard to the existent form of the stick. Hence, one has to reason that things are non ever, as they appear to be. It is possible to deduce a similar decision with regard to the head of another. A individual can exhibit all the marks of being in hurting, but he may non be. He may be feigning. On the footing of what can be observed, it can non be known with cocksureness that he is or that he is non in hurting. The manner he appears to be may be misdirecting with regard to the manner he really is. Once once more vision can be deceptive. Both jobs therefore force one to separate between the manner things appear and the manner they truly are. This is the celebrated philosophical differentiation between visual aspect and world. But, one time that differentiation is drawn, profound troubles arise about how to separate world from mere visual aspect. As will be shown, countless theories have been presented by philosophers trying to reply this inquiry since clip immemorial. Second, there is the inquiry of what is meant by cognition. People claim to cognize that the stick is truly consecutive even when it is half-submerged in H2O. But, as indicated earlier, if this claim is right, so knowledge can non merely be indistinguishable with perceptual experience. For whatever theory about the nature of cognition one develops, the theory can non hold as a effect that cognizing something to be the instance can sometimes be mistaken or misdirecting. Third, even if cognition is non merely to be identified with perceptual experience, there however must be some of import relationship between cognition and perceptual experience. After all, how could one cognize that the stick is truly consecutive unless under some conditions it looked directly? And sometimes a individual who is in hurting exhibits that pain by his behavior ; therefore there are conditions that truly involve the behavior of hurting. But what are those conditions? It seems apparent that the cognition that a stick is consecutive or that one is in great hurting must come from what is seen in certain fortunes: perceptual experience must someway be a cardinal component in the cognition human existences have. It is apparent that one needs a theory to explicate what the relationship is and a theory of this kind, as the history of the topic all excessively good indicates, is inordinately hard to develop. The two jobs besides differ in certain respects. The job of adult male s cognition of the external universe raises a alone trouble that some of the best philosophical heads of the twentieth century ( among them, Bertrand Russell, H.H. Price, C.D. Broad, and G.E. Moore ) spent their callings seeking to work out. The perplexity arises with regard to the position of the entity one sees when one sees a set stick in H2O. In such a instance, there exists an entity a dead set stick in H2O that one perceives and that appears to be precisely where the truly consecutive stick is. But clearly it can non be ; for the entity that exists precisely where the consecutive stick is is the stick itself, an entity that is non dead set. Therefore, the inquiry arises as to what sort of a thing this bent-stick-in-water is and where it exists. The responses to these inquiries have been countless, and about all of them raise farther troubles. Some theoreticians have denied that what one sees in such a instance is an existing entity at all but have found it hard to explicate why one seems to see such an entity. Still others have suggested that the image seen in such a instance is in one s head and non truly in infinite. But so what is it for something to be in one s head, where in the head is it, and why, if it is in the head, does it look to be out at that place, in infinite where the stick is? And above all, how does one make up ones mind these inquiries? The assorted inquiries posed above merely suggest the huge web of troubles, and in order to unbend out its tangles it becomes indispensable to develop theories. Methodology. In conformity with a proposal made above, epistemology, or the logic of scientific find, -should be identified with the theory of scientific method. The theory of method, in so far as it goes beyond the strictly logical analysis of the dealingss between scientific statements, is concerned with the pick of methods # 8212 ;with determinations about the manner in which scientific statements are to be dealt with. These determinations will of class depend in their bend upon the purpose, which we choose from among a figure of possible purposes. Methodologyor a scientific methodis a corporate term denoting the assorted procedures by the assistance of which the scientific disciplines are built up. In a broad sense, any manner of probe by which scientific or other impartial and systematic cognition is acquired is called a scientific method. What are the regulations of scientific method, and why do we necessitate them? Can at that place be a theory of such regulations, a methodological analysis? The manner in which one answers these inquiries will mostly depend upon one # 8217 ; s attitude to scientific discipline. The manner in which one answers these inquiries will mostly depend upon one s attitude to scientific discipline. Those who, like the rationalists, see empirical scientific discipline as a system of statements, which satisfy certain logical standards,such as meaningfulness or verifiability, will give one-answer. A really different reply will be given by those who tend to see the separating feature of empirical statements in their susceptibleness to alteration # 8212 ; in the fact that they can be criticised, -and superseded by better 1s ; and who regard it as their undertaking to analyze the characteristic ability of scientific discipline to progress, and the characteristic mode in which a pick is made, in im portant instances, between conflicting systems of theories. Such methods, as it was mentioned above, are of two chief types # 8212 ; proficientand logical. A proficientor technological method is a method of pull stringsing the phenomena under probe, mensurating them with preciseness, and finding the conditions under which they occur, so as to be able to detect them in a favorable and fruitful mode. A logical methodis a method of concluding about the phenomena investigated, a method of pulling illations from the conditions under which they occur, so as to construe them every bit accurately as possible. The term scientific method in the first case likely suggests to most heads the proficient methods of use and measuring. These proficient methods are really legion and they are different in the different scientific disciplines. Few work forces of all time master the proficient methods of more than one scientific discipline or one group of closely connected scientific disciplines. An history of the most of import proficient methods is normally given in connexion with the several scientific disciplines. It would be impossible, even if it were desirable, to give a utile study of all, or even of the most of import, proficient methods of scientific discipline. It is different with the logical methods of scientific discipline. These methods of concluding from the available grounds are non truly legion, and are basically the same in all the scientific disciplines. It is both Po ssible and desirable to study them in lineation. Furthermore, these logical methods of scientific discipline are in a really existent sense the psyche of the proficient methods. In pure scientific discipline the proficient methods are non regarded as an terminal in themselves, but simply as a agency to the find of the nature of the phenomena under probe. This is done by pulling decisions from the observations and experiments, which the proficient methods render possible. Sometimes the proficient methods make it possible for the expert research worker to detect and mensurate certain phenomena, which otherwise could either non be observed and measured at all, or non so accurately. Sometimes they enable him so to find the conditions of their happening that he can pull dependable decisions about them, alternatively of hav # 173 ; ing to be content with unverified speculations. The extremely specu # 173 ; lative, chiefly divinatory character of early scientific discipline was no uncertainty due wholly to the deficiency of suited proficient methods and scientific instruments. In a sense ; hence, it may be said that the techni # 173 ; cal methods of scientific d iscipline are subsidiary to the logical methods, or methods of concluding. And it is these methods that are to be con # 173 ; sidered in the present article. The proficient methods of scientific discipline, as ought to be clear from the predating comments, are of first rate importance, and we have non the remotest desire to underestimate them ; but it would be futile to try to study them here. Some Mental Activities Common to All Methods. There are certain mental activities, which are so perfectly indispensable to science that they are practically ever employed in scientific probes, nevertheless much these may change in other respects. In a broad sense these mental activities might accordingly be called methods of scientific discipline, and they are often so called. But this pattern is obnoxious, because it leads to traverse division and confusion. What is common to all methods should non itself be called a method, for it merely encourages the effacing of of import differences ; and when there are many such factors common to all the methods, or most of them, confusion is inevitable. When the mental activities involved are more or less common to the methods, these must be differentiated by mention to other, variable factors # 8212 ; such as the different types of informations from which the illations are drawn, and the different types of order sought or discovered in the different sorts, of phenomena investigated # 8 212 ; the two sets of differences being, of class, closely connected. The mental activities referred to are the undermentioned: Observation ( including experiment ) , analysis and synthesis, imaginativeness, swallow # 173 ; place and idealization, illation ( inductive and deductive ) , and comparing ( including analogy ) . A few words must be said about each of these ; but no significance should be attached to the order in which they are dealt with. Observation and Experiment. Observation is the act of groking things and events, their properties and their con # 173 ; crete relationships. From the point of position of scientific involvement two types of observation may be distinguished, viz. : ( 1 ) The bare observationof phenomena under conditions which are beyond the control of the research worker, and ( 2 ) experiment,that is, the observation of phenomena under conditions controlled by the in # 173 ; vestigator. What distinguishes experiment from au naturel observation is controlover what is observed, non the usage of scientific setup, nor the sum of problem taken. The mere usage of telescopes or microscopes, etc. , even the choice of specially suited times and topographic points of observation, does non represent an experiment, if there is no control over the phenomenon observed. On the other manus, where there is such control, there is experiment, even if following to no setup be used, and the sum of problem involved be negligible. The devising of ex periments normally demands the employment of proficient methods, but the chief involvement Centres in the observations made possible thereby. The great advantage of experiment over au naturel observation is that it renders possible a more dependable analysis of complex phenomena, and more dependable illations about their connexions, by the fluctuation of circum # 173 ; stances, which it effects. Its importance is so great that people normally speak of experimental method. The expostulation to this is that experiment may be, and is, used in connexion with assorted methods, which are differentiated on other, and more legitimate, evidences. To talk of a method of observation is even less allowable, seeing that no method can be employed without it. Analysis and Synthesis. The phenomena of nature are really complex and, to all visual aspects, really baffled. The find of any sort of order in them is merely rendered possible by procedures of analysis and synthesis. These are as indispensable to all scientific probe as is observation itself. The procedure of analysis is helped by the comparing of two or more objects or events that are similar in some respects and different in others. But while comparing is a necessary instrument of analysis, analysis, in its bend, renders possible more exact comparing. After analyzing some complex whole into its parts or facets, we may tentatively link one of these with another in order to detect a jurisprudence of connexion, or we may, in imaginativeness, combine once more some of them and so organize an thought of what may be common to many objects or events, or to whole categories of them. Some combinations so obtained may non match to anything that has of all time been observed. In this manner analysis and synthesis, even though they are simply mental in the first case, fix the manner for experiment, for find and innovation. Imagination, Supposition and Idealisation. Such order as may be built-in in the phenomena of nature is non obvious on the face of them. It has to be sought out by an active question of nature. The question takes the signifier of doing probationary guesss, with the assistance of imaginativeness, as to what sort of order might predominate in the phenomena under probe. Such guesss are normally known as hypotheses, and the formation of fruitful hypotheses requires imaginativeness and originality, every bit good as acquaintance with the facts investigated. Without the counsel of such hypotheses observation itself would be barren in scientific discipline for we should non cognize what to look for. Mere gazing at facts is non yet scientific observation of them. Hence for scientific discipline any hypothesis, provided it can be put to the trial of observation or experiment, is better than none. For observation non guided by thoughts is unsighted, merely as thoughts non tested by observations are empty. Hypotheses that can be put to t he trial, even if they should turn out to be false, are called fruitful ; those that can non be so tried even if they should finally be found to be true, are for the clip being called waste. Closely connected with the procedures of imaginativeness and guess is the procedure of idealization, that is, the procedure of gestating the ideal signifier or ideal bound of something which may be discernible but ever falls short, in its ascertained signifiers, of the ideal. The usage of restricting instances in mathematics, and of constructs like those of an economic adult male in scientific discipline are illustrations of such idealization. Inference. This is the procedure of organizing opinions or sentiments on the land of other opinions or on the grounds of observation. The grounds may be simply supposed for the interest of statement, or with a position to the farther consideration of the con-sequences, which follow from it. It is non ever easy to pull the line between direct observation and illation. Peoples, even trained people, do non ever gain, e.g. ,when they pass from the observation of a figure of facts to a generalization which, at best, can merely be regarded as an illation from them. But the trouble need non be exaggerated. There are two chief types of illation, viz. deductive and inductive. Inductive illationis the procedure of deducing some sort of order among phenomena from observations made. Deductive illationis the procedure of using general truths or constructs to suited cases. In scientific discipline inductive illation plays the most of import function, and the methods of scientific disciplines are mainly instr uments of initiation or aides thereto. But deductive illation is besides necessary to science, and is, in fact, a portion of about all complete inductive probes. Still, marked inductive ability is really rare. There are 1000s who can more or less right use a find for one who can do it. Comparison and Analogy. Mention has already been made to the importance of the procedure of comparing in the mental analysis of ascertained phenomena. The observation of similarities and differences, aided by the procedures of analysis and synthesis, is one of the first stairss to knowledge of every sort, and continues to be indispensable to the chase of scientific discipline throughout its advancement. But there are grades of similarity. Thingss may be so likewise that they are at one time treated as cases of the same sort or category. And the preparation and application of generalizations of all sorts are based upon this possibility of groking such category resemblances. On the other manus, there is a similitude, which stops abruptly of such close category similitude. Such similarity is normally called analogy. The term is applied to similarity of construction or of map or of relationship, in fact, to similarity of about every sort except that which characterises members of the same category, in the rigor ous sense of the term. And analogy dramas really of import portion in the work of scientific discipline, particularly in proposing those guesss or hypotheses which, as already explained, are so indispensable to scientific research and find. After this brief study of assorted mental activities which are more or less involved in the chase of every sort of cognition, and accordingly from no suited bases for the distinction of the assorted methods of scientific discipline, we may now continue to the consideration of the several scientific methods decently so called. Categorization. This may be described as the oldest and simplest of scientific methods. The observation of similarities be # 173 ; tween certain things, and sorting them together, marks the earliest effort to detect some sort of order in the seemingly helter-skelter clutter of things that confront the human head. Language bears witness to the huge figure of categorizations made spontaneously by pre-scientific adult male. For every common noun expresses the acknowledgment of a category ; and linguistic communication is much older than scientific discipline. The first categorizations subserved purely practical intents, and had mention chiefly to the utilizations which adult male could do of the things classified. They were often besides based on superficial resemblances, which veiled deeper differences, or were influenced by superficial differences, which diverted attending from deeper similarities. But with the growing of the scientific spirit classifica # 173 ; tions became more nonsubjective or m ore natural, attending being paid to the nonsubjective nature of the things themselves instead than to their human utilizations. Even now scientific categorization seldom begins at the beginning, but sets out from current categorizations embodied in linguistic communication. It has frequent juncture to rectify popular classifica # 173 ; tions. At the same clip it has troubles of its ain, and more than one scientific discipline has been held up for centuries for privation of a truly satisfactory strategy or categorization of the phenomena representing its field of probe. To recognize a category is to recognize the integrity of indispensable properties in a multiplicity of cases ; it is a acknowledgment of the 1 in the many. To that extent it is a Dis # 173 ; covery of order in things. And although it is the simplest method of scientific discipline, and can be applied before any other method, it is besides the cardinal method, inasmuch as its consequences are normally as # 173 ; su med when the other methods are applied. For scientific discipline is non, as a regulation, concerned with persons as such, but with sorts or categories. This means that the research worker normally assumes the truth of the categorization of the phenomena, which he is study # 173 ; ing. Of class, this does non ever turn out to be the instance. And the concluding result of the application of other methods of scientific discipline to certain sorts of phenomena may be a new categorization of them. Inductive and deductive methods. Below is the sum-up of contrasts in the major dogmas of inductivism and of Popper s deductivism..I begin with a imitation of inductivism in the signifier of eight theses: 1. Science strives for justified, proved cognition, for certain truth. 2. All scientific enquiry begins with observations or experiments. 3. The experimental or experimental informations are organised into a hypothesis, which is non yet proven ( context of find ) . 4. The observations or experiments are repeated many times. 5. The greater the figure of successful repeats, the higher the chance of the truth of the hypothesis ( context of justifica # 173 ; tion ) . 6. Equally shortly as we are satisfied that we have reached certainty in that mode we lay the issue aside everlastingly as a proved jurisprudence of nature. 7. We so turn to the following observation or experiment with which we proceed in the same mode. 8. With the concurrence of all these proved theories we build the building of justified and certain scientific discipline. In drumhead, the inductivist believes that scientific discipline moves from the specifics to the general and that the truth of the peculiar information is transmitted to the general theory. Now we will detect a imitation of Popper s theory of deduc-tivism, once more in the signifier of eight theses: 1. Science strives for absolute and nonsubjective truth, but it can neer make certainty. 2. All scientific enquiry begins with a rich context of background cognition and with the jobs within this context and with metaphysical research programmes. 3. A theory, that is, a conjectural reply to a job, is freely invented within the metaphysical research programme: it explains the discernible by the unobservable. 4. Experimentally testable effects, make bolding effects that is, are deduced from the theory and matching experi # 173 ; ments are carried out to prove the anticipations. 5. If an experimental consequence comes out as predicted, it is taken as a value in itself and as an encouragement to go on with the theory, but it is non taken as an component of cogent evidence of the theory of the unobservable. 6. Equally shortly as an experimental consequence comes out against the pre # 173 ; enunciation and we arc satisfied that it is non a blooper we decide to see the theory falsified, but merely tentatively so. 7. With this we gain a deeper apprehension of our job and continue to contrive our following conjectural theory for work outing it, which we treat once more in the same manner. 8. The concatenation of all these speculations and defenses constitutes the kineticss of scientific advancement, traveling of all time closer to the truth, but neer making certainty. In drumhead, the Popperian deductivist believes that scientific discipline moves from the general to the specifics and back to the general # 8212 ; a procedure without terminal. Let me shoot a metaphor. I might compare the Popperian position of scientific discipline to that of a passenger car with two Equus caballuss. The experimental Equus caballus is strong, but blind. The theoretical Equus caballus can see, but it can non draw. Merely both together can convey the auto # 173 ; riage frontward. And behind it leaves a path bearing informant to the ceaseless battle of test and mistake. The Deductive-inductive Method. Merely as money makes money, so knowledge already acquired facilitates the acquisition of more cognition. It is every bit apparent in the instance of the method, which will now prosecute our attending. The advancement of scientific discipline, and of cognition by and large, is often facilitated by supplementing the simpler inductive methods by deductive concluding from cognition already acquired. Such a combination of tax write-off with initiation, J. S. Mill called the Deductive Method, by which he truly meant the Deduc # 173 ; tive Method of Induction. To avoid the confusion of the De # 173 ; ductive Method with mere tax write-off, which is merely one portion of the whole method, it is better to depict it as the Deductive-Inductive Method or the Inductive-Deductive Method. Mill distinguished two chief signifiers of this method as applied to the survey of natural phenomena, -namely, ( 1 ) that signifier of it in which tax write-off precedes initiation, and ( 2 ) that in which induc # 173 ; tion precedes tax write-off. The first of these ( 1 ) he called the Physical Method ; the 2nd ( 2 ) he called the Historical Method. These names are instead deceptive, inasmuch as both signifiers of the method are often employed in natural philosophies, where some # 173 ; times, say in the survey of visible radiation, mathematical ( i.e. ,deductive ) computations precede and suggest physical experiments ( i.e. ,induc # 173 ; tion ) , and sometimes the inductive consequences of observation or ex # 173 ; periment provide the juncture or stimulation for mathematical de # 173 ; ductions. In any instance, the differences in order of sequence are of no great importance, and barely merit separate names. What is of importance is to observe the chief sorts of juncture, which call for the usage of this combined method. They are chiefly three in figure: ( 1 ) When an hypothesis can non be verified ( i.e. ,tested ) straight, but merely indirectly ; ( 2 ) when it is possible to systematize a figure of already established initiations, or Torahs, under more comprehensive Torahs or theories ; ( 3 ) when, owing to the troubles of certain jobs, or on history of the deficiency of sufficient and suited cases of the phenomena under in # 173 ; vestigation, it is considered desirable either to corroborate an induc # 173 ; tive consequence by independent deductive logical thinking from the nature of the instance in the visible radiation of old cognition, or to corroborate a deductive decision by independent inductive probe. An illustration of each of these types may assist to do them clear. ( 1 ) When Galileo was look intoing the jurisprudence of the speed of falling organic structures he finally formed the hypothesis that a organic structure get downing from remainder falls with a unvarying acceleration, and that its speed varies with the clip of its autumn. But he could non invent any method for the direct confirmation of this hypothesis. By mathematical tax write-off, nevertheless, he arrived at the decision that a organic structure falling harmonizing to his conjectural jurisprudence would fall through a distance proportionate to the clip of its autumn. This effect could be tested by comparing the distances and the clip of falling organic structures, which therefore served as an indirect verifica # 173 ; tion of his hypothesis. ( 2 ) By initiations from legion astro # 173 ; nomical observations made by Tycho Brahe and himself, Kepler discovered the three familiar Torahs called by his name, viz. , ( a ) that the planets move in elliptic orbits which have the Sun for one of their focal point ; ( 6 ) that the speed of a planet is such that the radius vector ( i.e. ,an fanciful line fall ining the traveling planet to the Sun ) sweeps out equal countries in equal periods of clip ; and ( degree Celsius ) that the squares of the periodic times of any two planets ( that is, the times which they take to finish their revolutions round the Sun ) are relative to the regular hexahedrons of their average distances from the Sun. These three Torahs appeared to be rather independent of each other. But Newton systematised them all in the more comprehensive initiation, or theory, of heavenly gravity. He showed that they could wholly be deduced from the one jurisprudence that the planets tend to travel towards each other with a force changing straight with the merchandise of their multitudes, and reciprocally with the square of the distances between them. ( 3 ) H. Spencer, by comparing a figure of preponderantly industrial States and besides, of preponderantly military States, antediluvian and modern, inferred inductively that the former type of State is democratic and gives rise to free establishments, whereas the latter type is undemocratic and tends to oppression. As the sparse grounds barely permitted of a strict application of any of.the inductive methods, Spencer tried to corroborate his decision by deductive logical thinking from the nature of the instance in the visible radiation of what is known about the human head. He pointed out that in a type of society, which is preponderantly industrial, the trading dealingss between persons are the prevailing dealingss, and these develop them to humor and see others. The consequence is a democratic attitude in all. In a State, which is preponderantly military, the dealingss which are most common among its members are those of authorization, on the one portion, and of subordination on the other. The consequence is the contr ary of a democratic ambiance. RELATION OF EPISTEMOLOGY TO OTHER BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY In decision, I would wish to discourse the relation of epistemology to other subdivisions of doctrine. Doctrine viewed in the broadest possible footings divides into many subdivisions: metaphysics, moralss, aesthetics, logic, doctrine of linguistic communication, doctrine of head, doctrine of scientific discipline, and a gamut of others. Each of these subjects has its particular capable affair: for metaphysics it is the ultimate nature of the universe ; for moralss, the nature of the good life and how people ideally ought to behave themselves in their dealingss with others ; and for doctrine of scientific discipline, the methodological analysis and consequences of scientific activity. Each of these subjects efforts to get at a systematic apprehension of the issues that arise in its peculiar sphere. The word systematic is of import in this connexion, mentioning, as explained earlier, to the building of sets of rules or theories that are broad-ranging, consistent, and rationally defend able. In consequence, such theories can be regarded as sets of complex claims about the assorted affairs that are under consideration. Epistemology stands in a stopping point and particular relationship to each of these subjects. Though the assorted divisions of doctrine differ in their capable affair and frequently in the attacks taken by philosophers to their characteristic inquiries, they have one characteristic in common: the desire to get at the truth about that with which they are concerned state, about the cardinal ingredients of the universe or about the nature of the good life for adult male. If no such claims were asserted, there would be no demand for epistemology. But, one time theses have been advanced, places staked out, and theories proposed, the characteristic inquiries of epistemology inexorably follow. How can one cognize that any such claim is true? What is the grounds in favor of ( or against ) it? Can the claim be proven? Virtually all of the subdivisions of doctrine therefore give rise to epistemic ponderings. These ponderings may be described as first-order questions. They in bend necessarily bring forth others that are, as it were, second-order questions, and which are every bit or more troubling. What is it to cognize something? What counts as grounds for or against a peculiar theory? What is meant by a cogent evidence? Or even, as the Grecian Sceptics asked, is human cognition possible at all, or is human entree to the universe such that no cognition and no cocksureness about it is possible? The replies to these second-order inquiries besides require the building of theories, and in this regard epistemology is no different from the other subdivisions of doctrine. One can therefore specify or characterize epistemology as that subdivision of doctrine, which is dedicated to the declaration of such first- and second-order questions. Bibliographies: 1.A foreword to the logic of scientific discipline, by Peter Alexander, Sheed and Ward, London and New York, 1963. 2.Popper choices,edited by Dawid Miller, Princeton University imperativeness, 1985. 3.The critical attack to science and doctrine, edited by Mario Bunge, The free imperativeness of Glencoe Collier- Magmillan limited, London, 1964. 4.Britannica encyclopedia, 1948. 5.Logic without metaphysics, by Ernest Nagel, Glencoe, Ill.. : Free Press, 1957. 6. Epistemology, History of, ,by D.W. Hamlyn.The Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. 7.Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology,expanded 2nd ed. , by Ayn Rand, New York: Penguin Group, 1990.